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+ lots of tabs
+ s o m e b l a n k spa ces
+n\ow f\\or so\me b\a\c\kslashes
+Delete this word using backspaces.
+
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+++ 1-11-text
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HAND-BOOK OF PUNCTUATION ***
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ HAND-BOOK
+ OF
+ PUNCTUATION,
+
+ WITH INSTRUCTIONS FOR
+
+ CAPITALIZATION, LETTER-WRITING,
+ AND
+ PROOF-READING,
+
+ BY
+ W. J. COCKER, A. M.
+
+ [Illustration]
+
+ A. S. BARNES & CO.,
+ NEW YORK, CHICAGO, AND NEW ORLEANS.
+ 1878.
+
+ Copyright, 1878, by W. J. Cocker.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+As the pronunciation of words is determined by the usage of the best
+speakers, so, in a great measure, the punctuation of sentences is based
+on the usage of the best writers. Recognizing this fact, the author has
+aimed,—
+
+1. To state such general rules as are recognized by most writers of good
+English.
+
+2. To illustrate these rules by examples taken from many of our best
+English classics.
+
+3. To give some of the differences in usage that exist even among the
+best of writers.
+
+It is frequently asserted that even good writers differ so much in
+their use of punctuation marks that it is impossible to lay down any
+general rules, and that it is better for each one to consult his own
+taste and judgment. With equal reason it might be said that inasmuch as
+good speakers, and even lexicographers, differ in the pronunciation of
+words, therefore each speaker should make his own taste and judgment the
+standard for correct pronunciation. A writer’s mode of expressing his
+thoughts will determine the character and number of the punctuation marks
+that he uses, and it is chiefly owing to this that even good writers
+differ somewhat in punctuating what they have written. There are some
+rules that are invariable under all circumstances; the use of others
+depends on the mental characteristics of the writer; and there are still
+other rules, the application of which is determined by the writer’s taste
+alone.
+
+By gestures, tones of voice, oratorical pauses, emphasis, and in various
+ways, a speaker can make his meaning clear to his listeners; and so a
+writer should certainly use all the aids which punctuation, capitals,
+and italics afford, in presenting clearly what he has written for the
+perusal of others. Business men, however, seem to think that they are not
+amenable to the rules that govern good writers. They affirm that they
+have no time to punctuate their letters, and yet they subject others to
+the necessity of expending time and patience in trying to make out their
+meaning. Serious misunderstandings have arisen between business men, in
+consequence of the omission or incorrect use of punctuation marks, and
+expensive lawsuits have originated in the careless punctuation of legal
+instruments.
+
+Very little attention is paid in our public schools to punctuation, and
+the rules usually given in English Composition are either disregarded
+or not properly understood. This may, perhaps, be accounted for by the
+fact that the rules are wanting in clearness, and are not sufficiently
+illustrated by examples. The aim of this volume is to remedy, in some
+measure, these evils, and to secure more attention to what ought to be a
+prominent part of school instruction. The evils of bad punctuation are
+really more serious than the evils of bad spelling, and no student can be
+said to have learned to read well, much less to write well, who has not
+studied punctuation intelligently.
+
+We would suggest that this hand-book be used at Rhetorical Exercises,
+and that when essays, orations, criticisms, &c., are handed to the
+teacher for correction, he should use a red or a blue pencil, so that
+corrections may be the more readily recognized. Besides the corrections
+in grammar, spelling, &c., he should be careful to supply punctuation
+marks when needed, cross out needless ones, and, of course, make such
+other corrections as may be necessary. When the productions are returned
+to the pupils, the teacher should first point out the necessity of using
+certain marks, in order to define and bring out the meaning, and to show
+the relation between the different members of a sentence. Having thus
+shown the need of punctuation marks, then reference should be made to
+some of the simpler rules, to impress this need on the mind. Great care
+should be taken not to perplex the mind with too many rules before the
+necessity is created for their use. The great difficulty in the study
+of punctuation has been that many rules are committed to memory before
+the need of their use has arisen, so that the mind is perplexed and
+bewildered instead of enlightened. The rule, it must be remembered, does
+not create the necessity; the necessity creates the rule. Then, again,
+we think a great mistake is made by having the beginner punctuate what
+some one else has written. The better plan is for the pupil, at the very
+outset, to punctuate what he himself has composed, and in his effort to
+bring out his own meaning clearly, he will, with the aid of a few rules,
+almost intuitively fall into the habit of punctuating correctly.
+
+The following suggestions may be of service:—
+
+1. Do not give a pupil a rule to learn, unless it is clearly founded upon
+examples taken from what he himself has written.
+
+2. Take, at first, the simplest, most frequently used, and most readily
+understood rules.
+
+3. Advance slowly, remembering that a few simple principles clearly
+understood, are of much more practical benefit than a number of misty
+rules hastily committed to memory.
+
+In the preparation of this hand-book, the author is under obligations
+to various authorities, but he is more especially indebted to Wilson’s
+“Treatise on Punctuation.”
+
+ W. J. COCKER.
+
+ADRIAN, Mich., Dec. 26, 1877.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Table of Contents.
+
+
+ I. PUNCTUATION pp. 1-53
+
+ II. CAPITALS ” 54-70
+
+ III. LETTER-FORMS ” 71-100
+
+ IV. PROOF-READING ” 101-114
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Punctuation.]
+
+
+Introduction.
+
+The principal punctuation marks are,—
+
+ 1. The Comma ,
+ 2. The Semicolon ;
+ 3. The Colon :
+ 4. The Period .
+
+The comma indicates a somewhat close relationship between the parts of a
+sentence; the semicolon, a more distant relationship; the colon indicates
+that the parts are almost independent of each other; the period marks the
+close of a sentence, and indicates that a thought is complete.
+
+In simple sentences, when the words are closely united together, and
+the relationship of the words to each other is readily perceived, there
+is usually no need of any punctuation marks, except a period at the
+close. It should always be borne in mind that punctuation marks are
+used primarily to assist in bringing out the meaning of the writer, and
+not to embellish a written or a printed page. In sentences made up of
+parts that are closely related to each other, but, at the same time,
+distinct in character, commas should be used. They are way-marks for the
+accommodation of the reader. A production unpunctuated presents as dreary
+a prospect to the reader, as the level plain of Chaldæa presents to the
+perplexed traveler who has lost himself among the sandy mounds on the
+banks of the Euphrates, and has nothing by which to direct his course.
+
+When the different parts of a sentence are somewhat disconnected, and
+not closely related to each other, a semicolon or colon should be used.
+Sentences are sometimes very long and complicated. It is then necessary
+to separate the main divisions by semicolons, and the smaller by commas.
+Sometimes the smaller parts of a sentence are separated by commas and
+semicolons, and the main divisions by colons.
+
+The other marks in use are,—
+
+ 1. The Interrogation Point ?
+ 2. The Exclamation Point !
+ 3. The Dash —
+ 4. Marks of Parenthesis ( )
+ 5. Brackets [ ]
+ 6. Quotation Marks “ ‘ ’ ”
+ 7. The Apostrophe ’
+ 8. The Hyphen -
+ 9. Miscellaneous marks.
+
+
+THE COMMA.
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
+
+In order to properly understand some of the rules that are given in the
+following pages, it is absolutely necessary to have a clear understanding
+of the difference between a sentence and a clause. A sentence is a
+combination of words expressing a complete thought, and usually followed
+by a period; a clause is a distinct part of a sentence. Some sentences
+are simple in form, and have but one subject and one finite verb; as,
+“Language is part of a man’s character.”—_Coleridge._ Other sentences
+are made up of clauses, each clause having a subject and a verb; in
+other words, several clauses are sometimes joined together to form one
+sentence; as, “New forms of beauty start at once into existence, and all
+the burial places of the memory give up their dead.”—_Macaulay._ It will
+be easily seen that clauses will be more readily recognized with the eye,
+and more easily comprehended, if they are separated from each other by
+punctuation marks. This will be especially so, if the clauses are long.
+
+In preparing this hand-book, the aim has been to avoid, as much as
+possible, the use of technical terms. Whenever such terms are used,
+explanations will usually be found under the head of _Remarks_.
+
+
+RULE I. _Independent Clauses._—Independent clauses should be separated
+from each other by commas.
+
+
+EXAMPLES.
+
+“Savage was discomposed by the intrusion or omission of a comma, and
+he would lament an error of a single letter as a great calamity.”—_Dr.
+Johnson._
+
+ “Man wants but little here below,
+ Nor wants that little long.”—_Goldsmith._
+
+“Take short views, hope for the best, and trust in God.”—_Sydney Smith._
+
+
+REMARKS.
+
+1. An independent clause is one that is not dependent on any other clause
+for the completion of its meaning; as, Take short views | hope for the
+best | and trust in God. Independent clauses are frequently connected by
+_and_, _or_, _nor_, _but_.
+
+2. When the clauses are short and closely united, the comma may be
+omitted; as, “Death had lost its terrors and pleasure its charms.”
+
+3. When the clauses are long and divided into smaller portions by commas,
+they should be separated from each other by semicolons. See Rule I. p. 23.
+
+
+RULE II. _Dependent Clauses._—Dependent clauses should be separated from
+each other by commas.
+
+
+EXAMPLES.
+
+“If a man does not make new acquaintances as he advances through life, he
+will soon find himself left alone. A man, Sir, should keep his friendship
+in constant repair.”—_Dr. Johnson._
+
+“When Dr. Franklin wished to gain his enemy, he asked him to do him a
+favor.”
+
+“Clap an extinguisher upon your irony, if you are unhappily blest with a
+vein of it.”—_Lamb._
+
+“Although we seldom followed advice, we were all ready enough to ask
+it.”—_Goldsmith._
+
+
+REMARKS.
+
+1. A clause is said to be dependent, when it depends on some other clause
+to complete its meaning; as, When Dr. Johnson wished to gain his enemy |
+he asked him to do him a favor. The first clause of this sentence would
+not be complete in meaning without the second. Dependent clauses usually
+commence with _if_, _when_, _since_, _because_, _until_, &c.
+
+2. When clauses are closely connected, the comma may be omitted; as,
+Mozart published some music when seven years of age.
+
+
+RULE III. _Relative Clauses._—1. A relative clause should be separated
+from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
+
+2. But the comma should be omitted, when the relative clause is so
+closely connected with what precedes that it cannot be dropped without
+destroying the sense.
+
+
+EXAMPLES.
+
+1. “Men in a corner, who have the unhappiness of conversing too little
+with present things.”—_Swift._
+
+“The waters are nature’s storehouse, in which she locks up her
+wonders.”—_Izaak Walton._
+
+“He had on a coat made of that cloth called thunder-and-lightning, which,
+though grown too short, was much too good to be thrown away.”—_Goldsmith._
+
+2. “Althworthy here betook himself to those pleasing slumbers which
+a heart that hungers after goodness is apt to enjoy when thoroughly
+satisfied.”—_Fielding._
+
+“A man who is good for making excuses is good for nothing else.”—_Dr.
+Franklin._
+
+“Like Cæsar, Cortes wrote his own commentaries in the heart of the
+stirring scenes which form the subject of them.”—_Prescott._
+
+
+REMARKS.
+
+1. Relative clauses are generally introduced by the relative pronouns
+_who_, _which_, _that_, or _what_.
+
+2. A comma should be placed before the relative clause, even when it is
+necessary to complete the meaning of the antecedent,—
+
+ _a._ When the relative is immediately followed by a word or an
+ expression inclosed in commas; as, “As a man, he may not have
+ deserved the admiration which he received from those, who,
+ bewitched by his fascinating society, worshiped him nightly in
+ his favorite temple at Button’s.”—_Macaulay._
+
+ _b._ When the relative has several antecedents that are
+ separated from each other by commas; as, “All those arts,
+ rarities, and inventions, which vulgar minds gaze at, the
+ ingenious pursue, and all admire, are but the relics of an
+ intellect defaced with sin and time.”—_South._
+
+3. The words _of which_ are sometimes preceded by a comma, even when they
+are necessary to complete the meaning of the antecedent: as, “His mind
+was formed of those firm materials, of which nature formerly hammered
+out the Stoic, and upon which the sorrows of no man living could make an
+impression.”—_Fielding._
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+++ 1-11.c
+/* 1-11 How would you test the word count program? What kinds of input are most
+ * likely to uncover bugs if there are any?
+ *
+ * Test the word count program by comparing with the utility wc(1)
+ *
+ * Use input that involves lots of non-alphanumeric characters. See 1-11-text
+ *
+ * $ wc 1-11-text
+ * 345 2161 14187 1-11-text
+ * $ ./a.out < 1-11-text
+ * 345 2265 14187
+ *
+ * The book provides a simplistic definition of a word.
+ */
+
+#include <stdio.h>
+
+#define IN 1
+#define OUT 0
+
+/* count lines, words, and characters in input */
+int main() {
+ int c, nl, nw, nc, state;
+
+ state = OUT;
+ nl = nw = nc = 0;
+ while ((c = getchar()) != EOF) {
+ ++nc;
+ if (c == '\n')
+ ++nl;
+ if (c == ' ' || c == '\n' || c == '\t')
+ state = OUT;
+ else if (state == OUT) {
+ state = IN;
+ ++nw;
+ }
+ }
+ printf("%d %d %d\n", nl, nw, nc);
+}
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+++ 1-12-text
+ "He was therefore, feasted and invited to all the court parties. At these he
+sometimes met the old Duchess of Bourbon, who, being a chess player of about
+his force, they very generally played together. Happening once to put her king
+into prize, the Doctor took it. 'Ah,' says she, 'we do not take kings so.' 'We
+do in America,' said the Doctor."--Thomas Jefferson.
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blob + 1aa1bb279997d14ffde30a11b1302c8c614a7310 (mode 644)
--- /dev/null
+++ 1-12.c
+/* 1-12 Write a program that prints its input one word per line. */
+
+#include <stdio.h>
+
+int main() {
+ int c;
+ enum { out, in } state = out;
+ while ((c = getchar()) != EOF) {
+ if (c == ' ' || c == '\t' || c == '\n') {
+ if (state == in)
+ putchar('\n');
+ state = out;
+ } else {
+ putchar(c);
+ state = in;
+ }
+
+ }
+}
